From Plague to Princes – Governance in England, 1350 – 1603
Power in a Shifting World
Between 1350 and 1603, England underwent a profound transformation. From the aftermath of the Black Death through the Wars of the Roses, the rise of the Tudors, the Reformation, and the expansion of state bureaucracy, governance evolved dramatically. Power began to shift from feudal lords toward the centralised crown, while Parliament slowly gained status as an essential element of government. Though far from democratic, the mechanisms of rule were increasingly formalised, and the modern state began to take shape.
This period bridges the late medieval and early modern worlds. It saw the decline of the Plantagenets, the rise and fall of competing royal houses, and the consolidation of royal power under the Tudors. It also witnessed new ideas of law, sovereignty, and national identity, all of which left a lasting imprint on English governance, not least because this period saw the English crown usurp the Pope as the ultimate authority on matters of state and the church, creating Protestantism, events that had far reaches consequences.
The Black Death and Social Realignment (1348 – 1389)
The arrival of the Black Death in 1348 had a catastrophic impact, killing an estimated one third to one half of England’s population within two years. The demographic collapse destabilised the feudal economy. Labour became scarce and peasants gained bargaining power.
In response, Edward III’s government introduced the Ordinance of Labourers (1349) and the Statute of Labourers (1351), which attempted to cap wages and restrict worker mobility. These laws were poorly enforced and increasingly ignored. The state had neither the manpower nor the legitimacy to suppress rising peasant expectations indefinitely.
The Peasants’ Revolt in 1381, triggered by poll taxes and local abuses, saw widespread violence and direct demands for the abolition of serfdom. Though the revolt was crushed, the institution of villeinage began a steady decline. Governance from this point would have to consider social pressures as well as elite interests.
The Crown and Parliament in Late Plantagenet Rule (1350 – 1499)
The later reign of Edward III saw the continued development of Parliament as a mechanism for taxation and consent. The Good Parliament of 1376 is notable for its criticism of royal corruption and its impeachment of royal officials. Though its reforms were short lived, it set a precedent.
Under Richard II, tensions between crown and nobility escalated. Richard’s heavy reliance on favourites, financial mismanagement, and his dismissal of Parliament’s grievances culminated in his deposition by Henry Bolingbroke, who became Henry IV in 1399. This was the first time an English monarch was deposed through a quasi-legal process with parliamentary approval.
Henry IV and Henry V relied on Parliament to fund their military campaigns, particularly in France. Parliament, still only for the privileged landowners, increasingly saw itself as a partner in governance, not merely a rubber stamp for taxation.
The Wars of the Roses and Dynastic Instability (1455 – 1487)
The fifteenth century was marked by civil conflict between the rival houses of Lancaster and York. The Wars of the Roses created a power vacuum in which local magnates acted with near independence, and central government all but collapsed.
Though Parliament met during the conflict, its influence was minimal. Governance became a matter of military strength and noble alliance rather than institutional continuity. Lawlessness and private feuds flourished. Justice was often administered by force or ignored altogether.
The decisive victory of Henry Tudor at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485, and his coronation as Henry VII, ended decades of instability and founded the Tudor dynasty. He would begin the long process of restoring central authority.
Henry VII and the Restoration of Royal Authority (1485 – 1509)
Henry VII reasserted monarchical power through administrative reform, strategic marriages, and fiscal prudence. He used bonds and recognisances to control the nobility, reined in overmighty subjects, and expanded the use of the Court of Star Chamber.
He governed through the King’s Council and increasingly relied on professional administrators rather than noble allies. Parliament met infrequently but was used to legitimise royal actions and raise taxes.
Henry’s reign marks the transition from feudal kingship to a more bureaucratic monarchy. His emphasis on order, control, and dynastic security shaped the character of Tudor governance.
Henry VIII and the English Reformation (1509 – 1547)
Henry VIII is best known for the break with Rome and the creation of the Church of England. In 1534, the Act of Supremacy declared the king to be Supreme Head of the Church, ending papal authority in England.
This transformation was legal as well as religious. Parliament passed a series of Acts enabling the Reformation, including the dissolution of the monasteries, the Treasons Act, and the Six Articles. Parliament became a tool of radical religious and political change.
Henry greatly expanded the administrative capacity of the crown. New departments like the Court of Augmentations and the Court of First Fruits and Tenths were created to manage former Church property. The Privy Council took on a more formal role in governance.
Despite his tyrannical tendencies, Henry reinforced the precedent that major changes to law and religion required parliamentary legislation. The Reformation Parliament (1529–1536) sat longer and passed more statutes than any before it. Parliament was gaining influence and power, letting that power go was going to prove a problem.
The Mid-Tudor Crisis – Edward VI and Mary I (1547 – 1558)
Edward VI inherited the throne as a minor. His government, ruled by protectors Somerset and later Northumberland, continued Protestant reforms. However, factionalism and weak central authority led to instability. Edward VI died aged of fifteen, his advisers and he had drawn up the Devise for the Succession, written in his own hand, this unprecedented document bypassed centuries of succession convention by excluding his half-sisters Mary and Elizabeth, both of whom had stronger hereditary claims, and named Lady Jane Grey, cousin to Edward, Mary and Elizabeth.
Lady Jane Grey was Queen for 9 days, betrayed by the Privy Council that had proclaimed her Queen, and the majority of her supporters, in favour of Mary. Her husband and her were executed on 12th February 1554. Jane was said to have been one of the most educated and thoughtful women of her day, which is not a bad accolade when you consider she was only 16/17 years old when she was murdered – because that is the only word that can be used when you kill a child.
Mary became Queen of England in 1553 following the betrayal of Jane Grey and was later nicknamed “Bloody Mary”. This moniker stemmed from her persecution of Protestants during her reign. She vigorously attempted to restore Catholicism in England and, in doing so, used harsh measures, including burning hundreds of Protestants at the stake as heretics. Mary faced widespread opposition, though Parliament remained compliant.
The rapid policy shifts under Edward and Mary highlight the fragility of state institutions. The monarchy was central, and governance changed direction depending on who held the crown. The lack of constitutional limits meant that religious and political upheaval could be enacted or reversed through royal will. There was no control as long as the Crown held power. Mary I died in 1558 after less than 5 years terrorising England, the country breathed a collective sigh of relief.
Elizabeth I and the Consolidation of the Tudor State (1558 – 1603)
Elizabeth’s reign brought stability, relative religious peace, and administrative consolidation. The 1559 Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity re-established the monarch’s control over the Church and defined the structure of the Anglican settlement. Papal supremacy would never have control over England again.
Elizabeth governed through patronage, cautious diplomacy, and a network of loyal advisers, especially William Cecil. The Privy Council operated as an executive body, while Parliament was summoned periodically to grant subsidies and pass essential laws.
Though Elizabeth was skilled at avoiding direct conflict with Parliament, tensions emerged over succession, royal prerogative, and freedom of speech. Nonetheless, her reign solidified the expectation that governance required some form of legislative consent.
Local governance improved through the appointment of Justices of the Peace, the development of parish structures, and the Poor Laws of 1597 and 1601. These reflected a growing sense of state responsibility for order and welfare.
From Feudalism to Bureaucracy
Between 1350 and 1603, English governance was transformed. The monarchy moved from fragile reliance on feudal loyalty to commanding a centralised, bureaucratic apparatus. Parliament evolved from a feudal assembly to a legislative partner, particularly in matters of taxation and religion.
The Tudors, while often autocratic, created lasting institutional frameworks. The Privy Council, reformed financial courts, and growing use of statute law created a more modern state. Religious upheaval forced the crown to rely on law rather than decree. The expectation that monarchs would govern through Parliament was now established, even if not always followed.
By 1603, when Elizabeth I died without an heir, England was no longer a medieval realm of barons and knights. It was a nation governed by law, statute, and increasingly professional administration. The seeds of constitutional monarchy were sown, awaiting further conflict and evolution in the seventeenth century.
However, the structure of Parliament and its democracy had not evolved, the real power still lay in the hands of a select few, mostly born into their roles, whether the Monarch, a Duke, an Earl or Baron or an Archbishop – appointed by the Monarch, poor was still poor and largely ignored.